This year, I visited two very different sites, as far as the landscape and the expression medium were concerned, yet they had surprisingly some features in common...
La Vallée des Merveilles (Maritime Alps, France)
Context
Main Characteristics of the Carvings
The Situation of the Site
Other Representations
Monumental art vs. discreet art
Astronomic Interpretation
The Prevailing of Christianism
ReferencesMenhirs and dolmen of the Cévennes
La Table des Trois Seigneurs (The Table of the Three Lords)
Claie-de-Driolle
Galta
The Cupules
Mortissou
Cham des Bondons
Ginestous
The Vallée des Merveilles (Valley of Wonders) is part of a complex of several archaeological sites of rock art around the Bégo mount, which is situated in the magnificent national park of Mercantour in the French Maritime Alps, near the Italian frontier. Yet this cultural phenomenon is not isolated but is part of a larger region where this rock art developed and which extends along the southern alpine bow, a region which is nowadays divided up between France, Italy and Switzerland, down to the Appennines.
Halberds (a dagger fixed on a wooden stick) are weapons that were typically used from the Chalcolitic period (3800-2500 BC) to the Bronze Age (until approx. 2200 BC).The archaeologists determined the age of the rock art comparing the represented objects (especially the arms) with artefacts which can be more easily dated. It is thus estimated that the rock carvings have been made during the period from the Copper Age (from approx. 3400 BC) to the late Bronze Age (until approx. 2200 BC). Mostly, the carvings are attributed to the Funnel Beakers Culture (TRB), which took place between 2300 and 2200 BC in the South of Europe. The art developed in this region is very varied: rock carving, menhir statues, steles... Nevertheless the style of the representations is very consistent, which witnesses a community of social and cultural heritage.
Main characteristics of the Carvings
Around the Bégo Mount, the discovered rock art is situated at altitudes between 2,000 and 2,700 m.
Graffiti left by pastors and passing travellersIn the winter, the longest season in this region, the area is impassable because of the weathering and the great amounts of snow. Pastors used to come from very early times until the Middle Age in the summer to have their herds graze. The region is also situated at the crossroads of different protohistorical cultures, and travellers used the available passages for the development of commerce.
The many graffiti out of different ages witness their visit.
Nevertheless, the carvings of the Vallée des Merveilles are to be found at the highest altitudes, where no valuable grazing grounds are available anymore, making way to an amazing landscape of rock chaos. Moreover, the representations have been made with so much care that they cannot be interpreted just as graffiti of pastors or passing travellers.
Detail of a horn-shaped carving that has been meticulously shaped using a pointed tool and a hammer.
One of the numerous and a typical representation of a plough of the alpine rock art.Much more, many forms of representation intimate a symbolism for cultural values and their interpretation as their performance for cultual purposes. Especially, the representation of ploughs is typically interpreted as the transition to a paternalistic society: while fertility was believed to be the exclusive and mysterious privilege of women in primitive cultures, men developed in the agricultural societies the ability to take control over their environment making the earth more productive with the help of new technologies, and could thus take over the control over fertility.
Nevertheless, the "headless goddess" found on a rock is sometimes interpreted as a reminiscence of a matriarchal society. Still, this carving keeps a "family likeness" with the numerous horn-shaped carvings of the site.
The "headless goddess".Bulls or "horn-shaped" carvings are the strikingly predominant pattern on the site of the Merveilles.
They are found either isolated on a large surface of rock... ... or as part of a composed image. Geoffroy de Saulieu (see references below), nevertheless, attracts the attention on the fact that composed representations should not be interpreted as a whole image but as randomly grouped individual representations, since he found out that the carvings have not been performed at the same time, but added one after the other on the carrier.
Most of the time, only the head is represented, but sometimes the whole body is represented as viewed from above, sometimes with its members spread sidely. 
The shapes of the horns can be very different. Sometimes they face each other as in a position of fight. 
Different representations of bulls.
The pattern can be derived to form a character in a position of adoration, which is a more recurrent theme on other sites like Valcamonica. According to Helen Benigni, the bull has been a very recurrent pattern in the Neolithic representations in Western Europe a symbolism that lasted until the Iron Age which was characterised as the "Taurus area". The horns of bulls (or cows?) are associated with the moon crescent, which makes a lunar symbol out of it. The phases of the moon were put in relationship with death and rebirth.
In later religions, the bull is a solar symbol, such as, for example, in the Mithra cult, a religion that initiated in India around 1400 BC, spread out over Persia into the Greco-Roman world, and, before it was abandoned, competed with christianism in the Roman society. According to Acharya, "The bull [in mithraism] represented rebirth, fertility and fecundity. [...]. The bath of bull's blood cleansed the initiate from sin; its performance was regarded as the day of his spiritual birth; he was reborn into eternity." and "The bull was sacred to the sun god and was an early solar symbol because of its connection to agriculture, in drawing the plough.".
Whether the bull representations here actually stand in relationship with the moon or the sun, the carvings of the Vallée des Merveilles seem to represent the same patterns of ideology and symbolism.
A dagger.The second most recurrent patterns are arms like halberds and daggers, which can also be interpreted as a symbol of virility, power, and the triumphant submission of nature by humans.
Quite universally in different cultures, high mountains are associated with high spirituality. Mount Kailash, one famous example among many, is nowadays still a very frequent goal for pilgrims. Probably, the escalation into highest spheres, the approaching of the sky, often seen as the dwelling of the gods, and the pure, light, and invigorating air of the mountains inspires to humans the idea of spiritual elevation, in contrast to the proximity to the earth, which is mostly associated with primitive instincts.
Moreover, the site of the Merveilles offers particular and original aspects:
Rocks shaped like faces.ghostly faces appear in the landscape, ...
Pink and grey-blue sandstone.the rocks show astonishing colours, ...
Iron nuggets embedded in the sandstone.nuggets of iron embedded in the rocks attract lightning, making the site of the Merveilles the theatre of impressive storms. Indeed these aspects strike the imagination and, in particular, the awe inspired by the violent storms is also reflected in the carvings.
This large sandstone plate containing many iron nuggets bears a very high number of horn-shaped carvings
which you can partly see on this picture if you have good eyes and also the largest representation of a bull head:
notice the triangular shape for the head at the right bottom of the plate and the extended horns that enclose almost
all the plate.Some representations suggest that at least a part of the rituals that have taken place in the Vallée des Merveilles might have been related to the cult of thunder.
Bull with horns in shape of
lightning.The most famous carving of the Bégo Mount, the "sorcerer", seems to be
dancing while manipulating daggers. The daggers are sometimes
interpreted as the representation of thunder.Also, the famous "stele of the tribe headman", which used to stand on the site of the Merveilles river, shows obvious representations of thunder, with a dagger pointed on the head of the so-called "tribe headman". Unfortunately, I cannot display any photograph of it here (follow this link for a few details on this stele), since the stone has been removed to be exhibited in the museum of Tende and replaced by a muffed copy which is awkward to photograph.
Besides of the bulls and arms, other symbols appear which are more difficult to interpret:
Networked lines Curved lines. An anthropomorphic carving. The famous "anthopomorph with zig-zag-shaped arms" Generally, anthropomorphic carvings are rather an exception on the Merveilles site and the representations are not realistic, being limited to one aspect which might be a symbol carrier.
In his review of the alpine rock art, G. de Saulieu (see References) differentiates monumental art and discreet art: monumental art strike the eyes in a landscape and uses most of the time vertical carriers like vertical rock carriers or erected carriers like steles, which are richly decorated. The role of monumental art is rather a public act and often interpreted as a demonstration of power. Discreet art is rather incorporated in the landscape, not intending to modify it, and the author adds new elements on carriers, not modifying an overall picture which is already available, but rather contributing to a collection of individual representations. The site of the Vallée des Merveilles corresponds to the second category: We would have overseen a number of carvings if our guide had not attracted our attention on them. The "stele of the tribe headman" is an exception, being the only case of monumental and removable carrier found on the site.
Ms. Chantal Jègues-Wolkiewiez, as so-called "astroarcheologist", has given an astronomic interpretation to the site. She interprets the site as an "astronomic diary". Indeed the theory is interesting and worth considering, the more the site very probably offers an excellent position for an observation of the sky. We also know that pastoral cultures typically have excellent knowledge of astronomy.
The scientist has brought the representation with lunar and solar representations. According to her, bulls are lunar symbols and the curved lines, presenting mostly 12 curves, represent the cycles of the moon for one year. Daggers are solar symbols that indicate the position of the sun recorded at different times. The "anthopomorph with zig-zag-shaped arms" might be actually not an anthropomorphic representation but a record of the event of a solar eclipse.
Refer to her site for more information.
After christianism had spread throughout Europe, any manifestation of another religion or belief would be demonised. Correspondingly, the site inspired fear to the passing travellers who interpreted the representation of bulls as representations of the devil. Unfortunately, a few pictures have been vandalized to add a devilish aspect to the carving or modified such as the carving of the "Christ head". The good conservation of most of the carvings is probably due to the difficult access of the site.
The "Christ's head" is a carving that has been derived
from a horn-shaped figure, joining the horns, adding
eyes and thorns around the head.Clarence Bricknell was the first person who developed a scientific interest from 1881 for the carvings of the Vallée des Merveilles. Since then, many generations of searchers have enthused for the beauty and the particular interest of the site and the Vallée des Merveilles is nowadays still being investigated each summer by a group of searchers.
Geoffroy de Saulieu: Art rupestre et statues-menhirs dans les Alpes: Des pierres et des pouvoirs, 3000-2000 av. J.-C.; Editions Errance, Collection des Espérides, Paris 2004; ISBN: 2 87772 269 2
Mithra: The Pagan Christ Part 2 (Acharya S.)
www.archeociel.com (Chantal Jègues-Wolkiewiez)
The Doors of Precession: Lunar Deities and the Sacred Landscape of the Neolithic Peoples (Helen Benigni)
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Menhirs and dolmens of the Cévennes
Bruno Mark: Dolmens et Menhirs des Cévennes: 20 circuits de découverte préhistorique; Les Presses du Languedoc, Montpellier 2003; ISBN: 2 85998 276 0
Period of Erection: ?
To the History and Meaning of the Monument: This 2.45 × 1.20 m flagstone is probably the remnants of a dolmen.
For More Information: No further information found on this monument.
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Period of Erection: approx. 2500 BC
My Notes: Claie-de-Driolle, is the area with the highest concentration of dolmens in the Cévennes. The site is situated at the top of a small mountain with a magnificent view on the chestnut forests of the surrounding valleys. The necropolis has been renovated and the condition in which I found them is a partial reconstitution of what could have been their architecture. The dolmens are mainly made out of a small chamber made of slab stones and a corbelled cover of dry stones. All the dolmens have a different style of architecture and Dolmen 1 (Dolmen de la Bergerie-de-Panissière) is surrounded by a cromlech of 17 megaliths.
Found in the Monument: 1 copper and ring-shaped bead, 845 ring-shaped soapstone beads, 5 beads, 9 flint arrow heads, 1 flint blade, vessel fragments, 2 ring-shaped beads in blue glass paste, 1 bronze ring.
For More Information: Thoiras website, see also the references below.
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Period of Erection: ??? (probably Iron Age, i.e. approx. 1000 BC, at least for the cist)
My Notes: The site of Galta is also of geological interest because of its strange schist formations. The different monuments found at Galta are not grouped like on the former site but rather scattered around the Galta mountain with no apparent pattern. All of the monuments are menhirs, excepted the "dolmen of Galta", which actually a cist.
The menhir of the Galta mountain pass show 12 very well formed cupules (see detail and article about cupules below).
For More Information: No information found on these monuments.
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If cupules appear often on megaliths of the Cévennes, they are, according to Bruno Marc (see references below), not a unique phenomena: cupules can be also found in different parts of the world in many different sizes (between 2 and 10 cm in diameter and 1 and 10 cm in depth; beyond this size, they are called 'basins') and shapes (round, cross-shaped, foot-shaped, ...).
They are considered as the most ancient preserved 'rock art': In India, cupules dating back from the Pleistocene were found. In Europe, most cupules date back from the Metal Ages, but, in the Cévennes, it has been observed that the engraving of cupules had remained a tradition in pastors until last century.
The exact function or signification of cupules is unknown. On a horizontal carrier, they could be used to collect water, but they can also be found on vertical carriers.
An old pastoral custom of the Cévennes nevertheless gives us a hint: several persons standing at different places of a mountain would hit with large deer horns into the cupules in order to obtain a roaring sound reminding of the sound of thunder.
The Cévennes is a very dry region. The climate in this region is characterized by a long period of drought in the summer and violent storms at the equinoxes (see the website Orages for a number of impressive photographs). The storms are much localized but result in sudden and pouring rains that can flood the Gardon valleys within a very short time.
The tradition of the cupules could be then well associated with a cult to the water, a scarce and valued resource in this region during summer time.
Moreover, the tradition is closely bound to pastoral life: Cupules are mostly found on transhumance paths (called 'drailles' in this region) which were probably used in the earliest times and rather in the most isolated pasture areas. The same phenomena can be observed in other parts of France like in the Savoie.
References/For More Information:
R. G. Bednarik: Cupules – the oldest surviving rock art
See also the references below.
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Period of Erection: ?? (probably Iron Age, i.e. approx. 1000 BC)
My Notes: The name 'Mortissou' means 'the dead are there'. The site has been thus known for a very long time to have been a necropolis. The so-called 'dolmens' should rather be called cists, since they do not possess the monumental orthostats dolmen normally have and the chambers made out of thin schist slabs are very small: the individual monuments were thus probably aimed for only one burial. Nevertheless, they used to be covered by a small tumulus like dolmen, which is recognizable by the remaining stones scattered around the cists. All cists are open and badly damaged.
The necropolis is situated at the top of a mountain and the visitor can enjoy a magnificent view on the surroundings of the site. At the very end of the site, the rock forms a kind of promontory above the valley. Several cupules are engraved on this rock.
For More Information: No further information found on this site.
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The Cham des Bondons offers an impressive view on the surrounding valley and the
strange geological shapes of the surrounding hills.
Most of the menhirs can be
seen from very far away.Period of Erection: Bronze Age (approx. between 3500 and 2200 BC)
To the History and Meaning of the Monument: The Cham Des Bondons is the densest collection f menhirs in France after Carnac: more than 154 menhirs have been estimated to be grouped within 10 km2. Nevertheless, they do not seem to be laid out according to a specific pattern like in Carnac. Rather, they appear along the crest of a hill or at the crossing of paths. That is why they are mostly interpreted as the marking of ancient roads, but there are other theories like the marking of the entries to ancient mines or the manifestation of a cult to fertility. They appear either isolated of in groups of two or three or laid out in cromlechs. The menhirs are made of granite blocks, which means that the stones have been transported from elsewhere, since the soil of the plateau is mainly calcareous. Tumuli and a few cists are also to be found on the site.
Found in the Site: Burials; tools from different periods, from flint arrow to potteries and bronze objects; foundation of single-roomed temporary lodgings (probably linked to pastoral life).
For More Information:
Wikipedia; Exhibition in the village of Les Combettes
The menhirs mark out modern and ancient roads and often stand at crossroads. Very probably, the paths used nowadays have already been defined by ancient populations.
The "Stone of the Three Parishes" has
been shortened by quarry-workers. It is
estimated that it used to have a height of 5.50 m.
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Period of Erection: ?
To the History and Meaning of the Monument: Seven menhirs and one dolmen can be found at the Ginestous site. According to Bruno Marc, there used to be two more menhirs. According to the reference below, the menhirs used to stand on tumuli.
For More Information: Bulletin de la société préhistorique française no 11 - 12, février 1958 : travaux de novembre - décembre 1957, S.P.F.
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Period of Erection: ?
To the History and Meaning of the Monument: On this site, two menhirs, lie on the ground, distant of approx. 1,5 m, and are broken. Both menhirs seem to have had approx. the same height and to have formed an alignment.
For our part, we have found more that two stones that look like former menhirs. Bruno Marc's book show the stone on my photo to the right to his description for which I was not able to find any twin stone, while the description (also found in similar terms in the reference below) could well apply on my photo to the left.
For More Information: Bulletin de la société préhistorique française no 11 - 12, février 1958 : travaux de novembre - décembre 1957, S.P.F.
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Period of Erection: ?
To the History and Meaning of the Monument: This menhir on a road to the Mont Aigoual is one of three menhirs of the place named Trépaloup. One of the etymology of Trépaloup suggested by Bruno Marc is « tres palous », which means « three quoits » which would refer to the legend of Gargantua which used to play throwing stones. This etymology nevertheless might be a hint that the three menhirs are part of a set.
For More Information: No further information found on this site.
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